Lab 6 Blood

Blood Typing   

          It is easy to determine an individual's ABO type from a few drops of blood. A serum containing antibody A (anti-A) is mixed with some of the blood. Another serum with antibody B (anti-B) is mixed with another sample. Whether or not agglutination occurs in either sample indicates the blood type. For instance, if an individual's blood sample is agglutinated by antibody A, but not antibody B, it means that the A antigen is present but not the B antigen. Therefore, the blood type is A.

         Rh factor is another red blood cell surface protein. A person can have two copies of Rh⁺, two copies of Rh^- (meaning no antigen is made), or one copy of each. When an Rh^- individual makes contact with the Rh⁺ factor (as is the case with an Rh^- fetus carried by an Rh^- mother), the Rh factor is recognized as foreign, and an immune response begins and small amounts of Rh antibodies and lymphocytes are made. Keep in mind that the fetus’s blood and the mother’s blood do not mix during the gestation, but they do during the birthing process, so a future contact with the antigen signals circulating antibodies to create an intense and effective attack against the Rh⁺ factor.

         Some patients require a closer blood match than that provided by the ABO positive/negative blood typing. For example, sometimes if the donor and recipient are from the same ethnic background the chance of a reaction can be reduced. That’s why an African-American blood donation may be the best hope for the needs of patients with sickle cell disease, 98 percent of whom are of African-American descent.

         It’s inherited. Like eye color, blood type is passed genetically from your parents. Whether your blood group is type A, B, AB or O is based on the blood types of your mother and father.

Blood Typing Game

In playing the blood typing game my blood results were“5”.   I was able to save my patient and all were happy.  In giving my patient the needed transfusions, I had a 5 out of 5 success rate.  My grandson found this game to be entertaining and we played it several times.  He enjoyed watching the expressions on the patients face has they died.  My grandson was able to understand the game enough that he would figure out the answer before I could.  If a patient is given the wrong blood type the outcome would be the life expectancy would be zero and he would die.

There are 5 Leukocytes which are as follows:

• a.       Basophils - Basophils play a major role in inflammation, especially allergic reactions. They store histamine, a substance that dilates blood vessels and allows blood to flow into the tissues, causing inflammation.
• b.      Eosinophils - Eosinophils combat infections, especially those from small parasites. They are also important in fighting off viral infections.
• c.       Lymphocytes - Lymphocytes are part of the adaptive immune system, which is able to recognize foreign matter and destroy it quickly. Lymphocytes include natural killer cells, which are able to recognize and destroy altered cells, such as cancerous or infected cells. T cells and B cells are also types of lymphocytes.
• d.      Monocytes - Monocytes are important in the innate immune system, the part of the immune system that removes infections without requiring any memory of the attacking organism. Monocytes protect tissues from invading foreign substances and can rapidly move through the body to sites of infection.
• e.      Neutrophils - Neutrophils are often the first responders in cases of injury or infection and are involved in early inflammation. Neutrophils are able to fight off bacterial and fungal infections by ingesting the invading organisms, which are killed and eliminated from the body.

Lab 7 Immune System

 

  Blood, Erythrocytes & Leukocytes

 Erythrocytes

 

 Basophil

Neutro

Lymphatic System

Tonsil

The lymphatic system is physiologically and anatomically related to the cardiovascular system by the way that the cardiovascular system takes blood and the nutrients that the blood caries (oxygen, "food", etc.) around to the body, while the lymphatic system basically picks up and recirculates the fluids that the circulatory system dropped along the way. The lymphatic system makes the circulatory system not have to work as hard (otherwise, the circulatory system would have to deposit nutrients AND pick up fluids)

Nonspecific Body Defenses

    The three ways the integumentary system provieds the first line of defense are:
               a.       Skin: Acts as a barrier that protects us from injury, infection, and dehydration

b.      Tears, Saliva & Earwax: Tears lubricate the eyes and washing away particles. Tears and Saliva both contain lysozyme, an enzyme that kills many bacteria. Earwax traps small particles and microorganisms.

c.       Mucus: A thick, gel-like material secreted by cells at various surfaces of the body, including the lining of the digestive tract and branching airways of the respiratory system.  Microorganisms that come into contract with the sticky mucus become trapped and cannot gain access to the cells beneath. 

    The protective role of the cilia is when you breath in dust through your mouth the beating of the cilia moves the mucus upward so we can cough it up and spit it out or swallow it.

     The primary tissue type that cilia arise from is the Epithelium

The process of phagocytosis 

1)      Phagocyte approaches and captures bacterium

2)      Phagocyte surrounds bacterium

3)      Bacterium becomes enclosed in vesicle

4)      Vesicle fuses with lysosomes

5)      Lysosomal enzymes digest bacterium

6)      Wastes and debris are discarded

The Process of Phagocytosis

The two types of Phagocytosis are shown below:

 Neutrophil

  Eosinophil

The process involved in the inflammatory response is when tissues are injured the damaged cells release chemicals as an alarm for the process to begin. These chemicals stimulate mast cells, which are connective tissue cells specialized to release histamine. Histamine dilates blood vessels and makes them leaky. Complement proteins from plasma diffuse and sometimes kill them. Attracted by histamine chemicals, phagocytes and other squeeze through the leaky capillary walls and begin attacking and engulfing bacteria and debris.     

Mechanism by which complement kills bacteria

   
         

a.      Activated complement proteins from complexes of proteins that create holes in the bacterial wall.

b.      Water and salts diffuse into the bacterium through the holes

c.       The bacterium swells and eventually burst.

 

Specific Body Defenses

      The major histocompatibility complex is when a group of genes that code for proteins found on the survaces of cells help the immune system recognize foreign substances.
          

 Basic structure of an antibody

There are 5 different types of antibodies that a person has in their body.  They are as follows:

         

a.       IgG –Activate the complement system and neutralize many toxins.  They are the only antibodies that cross the placenta during pregnancy and pass on the mother’s acquired immunities to the fetus.

b.      IgM –Are the first to be released during immune responses.  They activate the complement system and cause foreign cells to agglutinate.

c.       IgA –Enter areas of the body covered by mucous membranes.  They neutralize infectious pathogens.

d.      IgD –This antibody is in the B Cell, blood & lymph.  Not sure they may play a role in the B Cell.

e.      IgE –In the B Cell, mast cells and basophils.  They activate the inflammatory response by triggering the release of histamine.

Colonal Expansion

The colonal expansion is production of daughter cells all arising originally from a single cell.

The interfeon operats by stimulating the production of proteins that interfere with viral reproduction.

There are two differences between cell mediated and antibody mediated immune response and they are:

1. B cells produce circulating antibodies
2. T cells either release chemicals that simulate other cells of the immune system or they directly attack the foreign cell and kill it.  Secondly, the T cells receptors cannot recognize whole anitgens - they only react to small fragments or antigens.

The cells involved in the cell mediated immune reponse are the following:

• C Lymphocytes
• B Lymphocytes
• Macrophages

The cells involved in the antibody mediate immun reponse are as follows:

1. B Lymphocytes
2. Plsama Cells

The difference between passive immunization and active immunization are:

a.       Passive Immunization – Helps against existing or anticipated infections.  This is done by receiving a gamma globulin shot.  However protection is not as long-lasting as Active Immunization.  Passive Immunization cannot confer long-term immunity against a second exposure.   Example of Passive Immunization are Measles, Hepatitis B & Tetanus.

b.      Active Immunization - The process of activating the body’s immune system in advance.  Getting a vaccine of antigen produced from dead or weakened pathogens.  An example is the oral Polio vaccine. 

Johnson, Michael. "Human Biology." Human Biology. 1 Sept. 2014. Web. 16 Oct. 2015.